Photodetector and upconversion device with gain (ec)

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the invention are directed to IR photodetectors with gain resulting from the positioning of a charge multiplication layer (CML) between the cathode and the IR sensitizing layer of the photodetector, where accumulating charge at the CML reduces the energy difference between the cathode and the CML to promote injection of electrons that result in gain for an electron only device. Other embodiments of the invention are directed to inclusion of the IR photodetectors with gain into an IR-to-visible up-conversion device that can be used in night vision and other applications.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/447,406, filed Feb. 28, 2011, which is herebyincorporated by reference herein in its entirety, including any figures,tables, or drawings.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Existing night vision goggles are complex electro-optical devices thatintensify existing light instead of relying on their own light source.In a typical configuration, a conventional lens, called the objectivelens, captures ambient light and some near-infrared light. The gatheredlight is then sent to an image-intensifier tube. The image-intensifiertube can use a photo cathode to convert the photons of light energy intoelectrons. As the electrons pass through the tube, more electrons can bereleased from atoms in the tube, multiplying the original number ofelectrons by a factor of thousands, often accomplished using a microchannel plate (MCP). The image-intensifier tube can be positioned suchthat cascaded electrons hit a screen coated with phosphors at the end ofthe tube where the electrons retain the position of the channel throughwhich they passed. The energy of the electrons causes the phosphors toreach an excited state and release photons to create a green image onthe screen that has come to characterize night vision. The greenphosphor image can be viewed through an ocular lens where the image ismagnified and focused.

Recently, light up-conversion devices have attracted a great deal ofresearch interest because of their potential applications in nightvision, range finding, and security, as well as semiconductor waferinspections. Early near infrared (NIR) up-conversion devices were mostlybased on the heterojunction structure of inorganic semiconductors wherea photodetecting and a luminescent section are in series. Theup-conversion devices are mainly distinguished by the method ofphotodetection. Up-conversion efficiencies of devices are typically verylow. For example, one NIR-to-visible light up-conversion device thatintegrates a light-emitting diode (LED) with a semiconductor basedphotodetector exhibits a maximum external conversion efficiency of only0.048 (4.8%) W/W. A hybrid organic/inorganic up-conversion device, wherean InGaAs/InP photodetector is coupled to an organic light-emittingdiode (OLED), exhibits an external conversion efficiency of 0.7% W/W.Currently inorganic and hybrid up-conversion devices are expensive tofabricate and the processes used for fabricating these devices are notcompatible with large area applications. Efforts are being made toachieve low cost up-conversion devices that have higher conversionefficiencies, although none has been identified that allows sufficientefficiency for a practical up-conversion device. Hence there remains aneed to achieve higher efficiencies of an up-conversion device that canemploy IR photodetector and light emitter materials that are currentlyavailable and can be fabricated in a cost effective manner.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Embodiments of the invention are directed to an IR photodetector withgain comprising a cathode, an IR sensitizing material layer, a chargemultiplication layer (CML), and an anode. The CML separates the IRsensitizing material layer from the cathode and has a LUMO level ≧0.5 eVhigher than the cathode's Fermi level, absent IR radiation. Alternately,the CML separates the IR sensitizing material layer from the anode andhas a HOMO level ≧0.5 eV lower than the anode's Fermi level, absent IRradiation. In embodiments of the invention, the IR sensitizing materiallayer comprises PCTDA, SnPc, SnPc:C₆₀, AlPcCl, AlPcCl:C₆₀, TiOPc,TiOPc:C₆₀, PbSe QDs, PbS QDs, PbSe, PbS, InAs, InGaAs, Si, Ge, or GaAsand the CML comprises naphthalene tetracarboxylic anhydride (NTCDA),2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),p-bis(triphenylsilyl)-benzene (UGH2), 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline(BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline) aluminum (Alq₃),3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)mesityl]-borane (3TPYMB), ZnO or TiO₂. In otherembodiments of the invention, the IR sensitizing material layercomprises PbSe QDs or PbS QDs and the CML comprises oleic acid,actylamine, ethanethiol, ethandithiol (EDT), or bensenedithiol (BTD).The IR photodetector with gain can further comprises a hole blockinglayer that separates the IR sensitizing material layer from the anode.

Other embodiments of the invention are directed to up-conversion deviceswith gain that comprises the IR photodetector with gain and an organiclight emitting diode (OLED). The OLED comprises the cathode, an electrontransport layer (ETL), a light emitting layer (LEL), a hole transportlayer (HTL), and the anode. The ETL comprisestris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB),2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), or tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline)aluminum (Alq₃). The light emitting layer (LEL) comprisestris-(2-phenylpyidine) iridium, Ir(ppy)₃, poly-[2-methoxy,5-(2′-ethyl-hexyloxy) phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV), tris-(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum (Alq₃), or iridium (III)bis-[(4,6-di-fluorophenyl)-pyridinate-N, C2′]picolinate (Flrpic). TheHTL comprises 1,1-bis[(di-4-tolylamino)phenyl]cyclohexane (TAPC),N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′(2-naphthyl)-(1,1′-phenyl)-4,4′-diamine (NPB), orN,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-di(m-tolyl) benzidine (TN)). The up-conversion devicewith gain can further comprise an interconnect layer separating the IRphotodetector with gain from the OLED. The interconnect layer comprisesa thin metal or a stack interconnection layer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows schematic energy band diagrams of IR photodetectors withgain, according to embodiments of the invention, a) without and b) witha hole blocking layer between the IR sensitizing layer and the anode.

FIG. 2 shows schematic energy band diagrams of an IR photodetector withgain a) under applied voltage in the dark, b) under applied voltage uponinitial IR irradiation, and c) under applied voltage and IR irradiation,where the hole accumulation in the charge multiplication layer (CML)reduces the energy level difference, which reduces or removes the energydifference between its LUMO and the Fermi level of the cathode, whichpromoting electron injection from the cathode, according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 shows a) an IR photodetector with an organic IR sensitizinglayer, according to an embodiment of the invention, with a plot of thegain for the photodetector as a function of voltage and b) an IRphotodetector with an inorganic IR sensitizing layer, according to anembodiment of the invention, with a plot of the gain for thephotodetector as a function of wavelength at various applied voltages.

FIG. 4 shows a schematic energy band diagram of an infrared-to-visiblelight up-conversion device with gain, according to an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 5 shows schematic energy band diagrams of an infrared-to-visiblelight up-conversion device with gain, according to an embodiment of theinvention, a) under applied voltage in the dark, b) under appliedvoltage upon initial IR irradiation, and c) under applied voltage and IRirradiation, where the hole accumulation in the CML reduces the energylevel difference, which reduces or removes the energy difference betweenits LUMO and the Fermi level of the cathode such that electrons injectedby the cathode and generated by the photodetector are provided to thevisible light emitting layer (LEL).

DETAILED DISCLOSURE

Embodiments of the present invention are directed to an up-conversiondevice comprising a photodetector with gain. By the imposition of gain,the signal from the IR photodetector can be amplified such that thelight emitter of the up-conversion device emits a higher intensity withgreater contrast. Embodiments of the invention are directed towards theachievement of gain by coupling the photodetector with a chargemultiplication layer (CML). A schematic for a photodetector with gain isshown in FIG. 1 a, where the IR sensitizing layer, the photodetector, isseparated from the cathode by a CML that is characterized by a deephighest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and a lowest unoccupiedmolecular orbital (LUMO) with an energy level, relative to the workfunction of the cathode, that results in an injection barrier in theabsence of IR radiation of at least 0.5 eV. Optionally, in an embodimentof the invention, a hole blocking layer (HBL) is situated between the IRsensitizing layer and the anode, as shown in FIG. 1 b.

The manner in which the photodetector with gain, according to anembodiment of the invention, functions is schematically illustrated inFIG. 2 a. With an applied bias in the dark, where no IR radiationilluminates the IR sensitizing layer, there is little or no injection ofelectrons from the cathode because of the CML's ≧0.5 eV barrier, asindicated in FIG. 2 a. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the device acts as anelectron only device. Although this device, and most devices of thisdisclosure, are directed to an electron only device, it should beunderstood by those skilled in the art that a device that acts as a holeonly device in the absence of IR radiation can be constructed in likemanner for a device that has gain by imposition of the oppositeelectrical bias and a CML where an energy level relative to the workfunction of the anode promoting accumulation of electrons rather thanholes. Upon IR irradiation, the IR sensitizing layer generateselectron-hole pairs with the electrons flowing to the anode because ofthe applied bias, as illustrated in FIG. 2 b. The counter flow ofphotogenerated holes results in the accumulation of holes at the CML,which diminishes the barrier for electron injection into the CML to lessthan 0.5 eV as shown in FIG. 2 c and significantly increases theelectron current towards the anode under the applied bias.

In embodiments of the invention, the IR photodecting layer can beinorganic. In an exemplary up-conversion device, a layer of PbSe quantumdots (QDs) can be employed as the IR photodetector and MEH-PPV can beemployed as the electroluminescent OLED. In addition to PbSe, other QDsthat can be employed include, but are not limited to, PbS. Otherinorganic materials that can be employed as IR photodetectors include,but are not limited to, continuous thin films of: PbSe, PbS, InAs,InGaAs, Si, Ge, or GaAs. In embodiments of the invention, the IRphotodetector is an organic or organometallic comprising materialincluding, but not limited to,perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic-3,4,9,10-dianhydride (PTCDA), tin (II)phthalocyanine (SnPc), SnPc:C₆₀, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride(AlPcCl), AlPcCl:C₆₀, titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc), and TiOPc:C₆.

By including the CML, the IR photodetector displays gain such that theefficiency of an up-conversion device is improved. An exemplary CML isnaphthalene tetracarboxylic anhydride (NTCDA). Other CMLs that can beemployed in embodiments of the invention include, but are not limitedto, 2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),p-bis(triphenylsilyl)benzene (UGH2), 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline(BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline) aluminum (Alq₃),3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB), ZnO, or TiO₂. When the IRphotodetector is inorganic, the CML can be an organic ligand, such asoleic acid that caps the inorganic photosensitive material. Theinclusion of the CML significantly improves the efficiency of thephotodetector. For example, as shown in FIG. 3 a, using a PTCDA IRsensitizing layer and a NTCDA CML, a gain in excess of 100 is observedwhen a potential of −20V is imposed across the electrodes. Using PbSeQDs as a photodetector and oleic acid, an organic ligand, a smallpotential, −1.5 V, is sufficient to generate a gain of up to 6 fold inthe near IR, as shown in FIG. 3 b.

Other embodiments of the invention are directed to up-conversion deviceshaving a photodetector with gain by including the CML. An exemplaryschematic energy band diagram of an up-conversion device, according toan embodiment of the invention, is illustrated in FIG. 4. In addition tothe IR photodetector and the CML, the up-conversion device comprises ananode, a cathode, a light emitting layer, a hole transport layer and anelectron transport layer. The anode can be, but is not limited to,Indium tin Oxide (ITO), Indium Zinc Oxide (IZO), Aluminum Tin Oxide(ATO), Aluminum Zinc Oxide (AZO), carbon nanotubes, and silvernanowires. The materials that can be employed as the light emittinglayers include, but are not limited to, tris-(2-phenylpyidine) iridium,Ir(ppy)₃, poly-[2-methoxy, 5-(2′-ethyl-hexyloxy) phenylene vinylene](MEH-PPV), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline) aluminum (Alq₃), and iridium (III)bis-[(4,6-di-fluorophenyl)-pyridinate-N,C2′]picolinate (Flrpic). Thecathode can be LiF/Al or can be any conductor with the appropriate workfunction including, but not limited to, Ag, Ca, Mg, LiF/Al/ITO, Ag/ITO,CsCO₃/ITO and Ba/Al. Materials that can be employed as electrontransport layers include, but are not limited to,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB),2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), and tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline)aluminum (Alq₃). Materials that can be employed as hole transport layersinclude, but are not limited to,1,1-bis[(di-4-tolylamino)phenyl]cyclohexane (TAPC),N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′(2-naphthyl)-(1,1′-phenyl)-4,4′-diamine (NPB), andN,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-di(m-tolyl) benzidine (TPD). Those skilled in the artcan readily identify appropriate combinations of anodes, cathodes, IRphotodetectors, light emitting layers, hole transport layers, andelectron transport layers by their relative work functions, HOMO andLUMO levels, layer compatibility, and the nature of any desireddeposition methods used during their fabrication. An interconnect layercan also be included, as is shown in FIG. 5, where an interconnect layerconnects the IR photodetecting portion of the up-conversion device tothe light emitting portion of the device. When present, the interconnectlayer can be a thin metal (for example about 0.5 to 3 nm thick Al, Ag,or Au) or a stack interconnection layer comprising an n-type dopedorganic layer/thin metal interconnecting layer/p-type doped organiclayer where: the n-type doped organic layer can be, but is not limitedto, Cs₂CO₃ doped Bphen, Cs₂CO₃ doped BCP, Cs₂CO₃ doped ZnO, Li dopedBphen, Li doped BCP, LiF doped Bphen, LiF doped BCP; the thin metalinterconnecting layer can be about 0.5 to 3 nm thick Al, Ag, or Au; andthe p-type doped organic layer can be, but is not limited to, MoO₃ dopedTAPC, MoO₃ doped NPB, HAT CN doped TAPC, or HAT CN doped NPB.

As shown in FIG. 5, an up-conversion device allows the flow of electronsto the light emitting layer (LEL) only when the IR sensing layergenerates holes and electrons, such that the CML promotes gain by theflow of electrons from the cathode, in addition to those generated bythe IR sensing layer. In FIG. 5, the electron transport layer alsofunctions as a hole blocking layer with respect to the IR sensing layer.Interconnect layers, as shown in FIG. 5, provide electron transport fromthe photodetector in an electron only device, as illustrated in FIG. 5.As can be appreciated by one skilled in the art, an interconnect layerin a hole only device would provide for hole transport.

Recently, a research group including some of the present inventors hasdisclosed in U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/347,696; filed May 24,2010, and incorporated herein by reference, an IR-to-green lightup-conversion device with an improved efficiency having a hole blockinglayer (HBL) situated between the anode and the IR detection layer. Forexample, the HBL layer can be placed between an ITO anode and a SnPc:C₆₀IR sensitizing layer, such that hole carriers from the ITO anode areefficiently blocked, suppressing visible luminance of the up-conversiondevice until a sufficiently high voltage and IR irradiation is applied.In embodiments of the invention that include a HBL, the HBL can be anorganic compound or an inorganic compound. The organic HBL can comprise,for example, 2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP) orp-bis(triphenylsilyl)benzene (UGH2), under dark and IR irradiation.These HBL materials possess deep HOMO levels. Because these materialsalso have a small LUMO energy, charge generation between the holeblocking layer and the IR sensitizing layer is negligible. In additionto BCP and. UGH2, other organic hole blocking layers that can beemployed in embodiments of the invention include, but are not limitedto, 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline)aluminum (Alq₃), 3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀, andtris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB). In embodiments of theinvention including an inorganic HBL, the inorganic compound can be ZnOor TiO₂. Materials that can be employed as electron transport layersinclude, but are not limited to, tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane(3TPYMB), 2,9-Dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), and tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline)aluminum (Alq₃).

Embodiments of the invention pertain to methods and apparatus fordetecting infrared (IR) radiation and providing a visible output.Because of their compatibility with lightweight rugged flexible plasticsubstrates, up-conversion devices, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent invention, can be used as a component, for example a pixel, fornumerous applications including, but not limited to, night vision, rangefinding, security, and semiconductor wafer inspection.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Organic photodetectors with gain having an area of 0.04 cm² werefabricated on patterned ITO substrates having a sheet resistance of 20 fper square. ITO substrates were cleaned with acetone and isopropanol inan ultrasonic cleaner, rinsed with de-ionized water, blown dry with N₂gas, and treated with UV ozone for 15 minutes. PTCDA and NTCDA werepurified by train sublimation two or more times. The organicphotodetector with gain has the structure ITO/NTCDA(50 nm)/PTCDA(300nm)/NTCDA(50 nm)/Au(100 nm), where the top three layers PTCDA, NTCDA andAu are the photo sensitizing layer, CML, and top electrode,respectively, and were vacuum deposited at a rate of 1 Å/s at a pressureof 1×10⁻⁶ Torr. All layers were vacuum deposited at a pressure of 1×10⁻⁶Torr.

The current density versus voltage (J-V) characteristics were measuredin the dark and under irradiation using a green laser of 532 nmwavelength from Lasermate Group, Inc. The light intensity, of 100μW/cm², was controlled using a neutral density filter and a NewportOptical Power Meter 840-E. Gain was calculated as the ratio of thenumber of charge carriers flowing through the device by the lightillumination to the number of photons absorbed by the organic film. TheAu electrode was ground and the voltage bias was applied on ITOelectrode. Device measurements were performed in air withoutencapsulation.

Inorganic photodetectors with gain, having an area of 0.04 cm², werefabricated on patterned ITO substrates having a sheet resistance of 20 Ωper square. PbSe nanocrystals with oleic acid capping groups werespin-coated on UV-ozone treated ITO-coated glass substrates inside anitrogen glove box. A 100 nm thick Al cathode was thermally deposited ata pressure ˜10⁻⁶ Torr through a shadow mask with an active area of 4mm². The final device has a structure of ITO/PbSe with oleic acidcapping ligand/Al.

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of devices were measured witha Keithley 4200 semiconductor parameter analyzer. Devices wereirradiated with monochromatic light from a Newport monochromator usingan Oriel solar simulator as a source. The illumination intensities weremeasured using two calibrated Newport 918D photodiodes, one for thevisible and the other for the infrared part of the spectrum. Theintensity of the incident irradiation was varied by using a set ofneutral density filters. To obtain the spectral response of thephotodetectors, light from the monochromator was chopped at 400 Hz tomodulate the optical signal. The photocurrent response as a function ofbias voltage was measured using a Stanford Research System SR810 DSPlock-in amplifier.

All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, andpublications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by referencein their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent theyare not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.

It should be understood that the examples and embodiments describedherein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modificationsor changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in theart and are to be included within the spirit and purview of thisapplication.

1-19. (canceled)
 20. An IR photodetector with gain, comprising acathode, an IR sensitizing material layer, a charge multiplication layer(CML), and an anode, wherein the CML separates the IR sensitizingmaterial layer from the cathode or the anode.
 21. The IR photodetectorwith gain of claim 20, wherein the CML comprises naphthalenetetracarboxylic anhydride (NTCDA),2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),p-bis(triphenylsilyl)benzene (UGH2), 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline(BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxyl quinoline) aluminum (Alq3),3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB), ZnO or TiO₂.
 22. The IRphotodetector with gain of claim 21, wherein the CML comprises BCP. 23.The IR photodetector with gain of claim 20, wherein the IR sensitizingmaterial layer comprises PCTDA, SnPc, SnPc:C₆₀, AlPcCl, AlPcCl:C₆₀,TiOPc, TiOPc:C₆₀, PbSe QDs, PbS QDs, PbSe, PbS, InAs, InGaAs, Si, Ge, orGaAs.
 24. The IR photodetector with gain of claim 20, wherein the IRsensitizing material layer comprises PbSe QDs or PbS QDs and the CMLcomprises BCP.
 25. The IR photodetector with gain of claim 20, furthercomprising a hole blocking layer that separates the IR sensitizingmaterial layer from the anode.
 26. The IR photodetector with gain ofclaim 25, wherein the hole blocking layer comprises2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline(BCP),p-bis(triphenylsilyl)benzene (UGH2),4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline)aluminum (Alq₃), 3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl] borane (3TPYMB), ZnO, or TiO₂.
 27. Anup-conversion device with gain, comprising the IR photodetector withgain of claim 20 and an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), wherein theOLED comprises an electron transport layer (ETL), a light emitting layer(LEL), a hole transport layer (HTL).
 28. The up-conversion device withgain of claim 27, wherein the HTL comprises1,1-bis(di-4-tolylamino)phenyl]cyclohexane (TAPC),N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′(2-naphthyl)-(1,1′ -phenyl)-4,4′-diamine (NPB), orN,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-di(m-tolyl) benzidine (TPD).
 29. The up-conversiondevice with gain of claim 28, wherein the HTL comprises TAPC.
 30. Theup-conversion device with gain of claim 27, wherein the CML comprisesBCP and the HTL comprises TAPC.
 31. A method, comprising: applying abias voltage to a device comprising an anode, a cathode, an IRsensitizing layer, and a charge multiplication layer (CML), wherein theCML separates the IR sensitizing material layer from the cathode or theanode; and exposing the device to infrared radiation such that a currentflows between the anode and the cathode.
 32. The method of claim 31,wherein the CML comprises naphthalene tetracarboxylic anhydride (NTCDA),2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP),p-bis(triphenyisilyl)benzene (UGH2), 4,7-diphenyl-1,1U-phenanthroline(BPhen), tris-(8-hydroxy quinoline) aluminum (Alq3),3,5′-N,N′-dicarbazole-benzene (mCP), C₆₀,tris[3-(3-pyridyl)-mesityl]borane (3TPYMB), ZnO or TiO₂.
 33. The methodof claim 32, wherein the CML comprises BCP.
 34. The method of claim 33,wherein the JR sensitizing material layer comprises PCTDA, SnPc,SnPc:C₆₀, AlPcCl, AlPcCl:C₆₀, TiOPc, TiOPc:C₆₀, PbSe QDs, PbS QDs, PbSe,PbS, InAs, InGaAs, Si, Ge, or GaAs.
 35. The method of claim 31, whereinthe device further comprises an organic light-emitting diode (OLED),wherein the OLED comprises an electron transport layer (ETL), alight-emitting layer (LEL), a hole transport layer (HTL).
 36. The methodof claim 35, wherein the HTL comprises TAPC.
 37. The method of claim 31,further comprising: flowing electrons from the cathode to thelight-emitting layer of the OLED; and emitting visible light.
 38. Amethod, comprising: applying a bias voltage to a device comprising ananode, a cathode, an IR sensitizing layer, and a charge multiplicationlayer (CML), wherein the CML separates the IR sensitizing material layerfrom the cathode; flowing electrons from the cathode to the CML, whereinthe electrons accumulate at an interface between the cathode and the CMLin the absence of IR radiation; exposing the device to IR radiation;generating pairs of electrons and holes in the IR sensitizing materiallayer, wherein electrons flow toward the anode and holes flow toward thecathode; accumulating holes in the CML; and flowing electrons thataccumulated at the interface between the cathode and the CML toward theanode.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the device further comprisesan OLED, the method further comprising: flowing electrons to the lightemitting layer of the OLED; and emitting visible light.